"That portion of the Mississippi which extends from Prairie du Chien to Lake Pepin is the most mountainous and truly beautiful on the whole river, and may with strict propriety be called the Alpine Region. The river here varies from a quarter to a full mile in width, and on either side throughout the whole distance is a range of mountains which sometimes actually bend over the river, and sometimes recede into the interior for several miles. The Mississippi here is rather sluggish, but perfectly translucent and completely filled with islands which are covered with a variety of forest trees found between Kentucky and the Great Lakes" (Charles Lanman, 1846)

Melting ice sheets released vast amounts of water that flooded the Mississippi Valley. These floods scoured the valley from the bluff to bluff, spilling meltwater miles back into tributary valleys. The flooding alternately eroded and then partly refilled the valley with sand and gravel outwash. When the floods subsided, the river began to downcut into the outwash sediments. The narrowed channel left terraces tens of feet above the new floodplain. Without vegetation, winds easily eroded the sandy terraces creating dunes. Fine particles carried by these winds covered the bluff tops.

By 9,000 years ago, the climate began to dry. This warm/dry period, called the Altithermal, lasted for several thousand years. The period peaked around 7,000 years ago. The Altithermal saw the expansion of prairies and prairie animals, including bison, well east of modern ranges. The long drought undoubtedly affected the Mississippi River. During this time, its flows probably diminished to a trickle, further cutting into the outwash deposits.

"With much pleasure and without hindrance, we had been examining the Colbert (Mississippi) River to find out whether it was navigable it its upper and lower reaches. Our canoe was loaded with seven or eight big wild turkeys, which are plentiful in this country. We did not lack buffaloes, deer, beavers, fish or bears, which are killed when these animals were swimming across the river" (Father Louis Hennepin, 1680)

Throughout this period, the river offered a wealth of natural resources. It supported a wide range of human populations, including the first farmers some 1,000 years ago. These farmers were perhaps more sensitive to minor climatic changes than were hunters. During this time, the climate changed several times. A warm/moist period, called the NeoAtlantic (A.D. 1250-1450). Warm/moist conditions recurred for a short time, but much cooler/moist conditions, called the Little Ice Age (A.D. 1550-1850), followed.

Archaeologists know of fluted points from uplands in Minnesota and Wisconsin within a few miles of the Mississippi River. Numerous mastodon and mammoth bones have also been found in this region. However, due to severe conditions within the Mississippi River valley, including meltwater floods, it is unlikely that Paleo-Indian sites exist in the modern floodplain.

Late:The mass extinction of most megafauna species coincided with the retreat of the glacier. The cause of these extinction's is not clear, but the Paleo-Indian hunters may have played a role. By 10,000 years ago, the people of the Upper Mississippi Valley adapted to a new prairie environment. The appearance of unfluted spear points of the Cody Complex, reflected the change to bison hunting on the northern plains. Some of these long slender points have been found on Upper Mississippi River terraces, indicating perhaps the earliest human use of the valley itself.

Late:As moisture increased, Archaic bands began to settle into regional niches. Each year, these people moved from winter rock shelters to summer camps along rivers. Their projectile points reflect an array of side-notched, stemmed, and corner-notched points. The differences in these point styles may be due to geographic or temporal variations. These points are very common on upland ridges, terraces, and occasionally on islands along the Mississippi River. The latter represents the first clear human use of the Upper Mississippi River bottoms. The use of the floodplain suggests an increased reliance on its resources.

About this time, regional exchange networks developed. These networks brought marine shell, copper and exotic stone materials into the Upper Mississippi River Valley. The Archaic people often used these materials to accompany the dead in special mortuary settings. One innovation was the use of copper for manufacturing tools and weapons. Burials were in cemeteries, with individuals sometimes adorned with red powder and accompanied by ceremonial artifacts such as large knives make of flint from southern Indiana or Illinois.

Middle:About 2,000 years ago, the unique and flamboyant Hopewell Culture spread out from southern Ohio and Illinois across much of the Upper Midwest. Hopewell was an elaborate mortuary system that incorporated non-utilitarian artifacts made of exotic materials with burials beneath round earthen mounds. Hopewell artifacts in the Upper Mississippi River Valley include imported ceramic vessels, drilled bear canine pendants, copper ornaments and tools, and large chipped-stone blades of Rocky Mountain obsidian. For unknown reasons, Hopewell ended about 1,600 years ago. After Hopewell, local societies continued to hunt and gather in seasonal rounds, but they constructed smaller mounts lacking exotic artifacts.

Late:Beginning about 1,200 years ago, a substantial shift occurred in the Woodland cultures of southwestern Wisconsin. Here some mounds began to be constructed as long linear forms or in distinct animal shapes. Potters now decorated pots with cordage pressed into the rim. The small triangular shape of projectile points reflects the discovery of the bow and arrow. By 1,100 years ago, corn horticulture was first practiced in the region. Archaeologists now recognize these changes as the beginnings of the Effigy Mound Culture in southern Wisconsin and adjacent areas. Late Woodland groups in the northern Upper Mississippi River did not construct animal-shaped mounds, suggesting the people were becoming territorial.

Oneota:Shell-tempered ceramic jars, triangular arrowheads, and numerous end scrapers are features that distinguish this culture. Between 950 and 700 years ago, the Oneota established several large mound and village complexes on high terraces near Red Wing. There they hunted deer, elk and bison. They also relied heavily on the Mississippi River floodplain for fish, turtles, clams and plant foods. The Oneota cultivated fields of corn, beans and squash with hoes made of bison shoulder blades.

From about 750 to 650 years ago, the Oneota shifted downriver to new settlements at LaCrosse. For the next two centuries, Oneota occupation of LaCrosse was intensive. However, just before French exploration along the Upper Mississippi River, the Oneota abandoned LaCrosse. Perhaps due to agricultural failure from the Little Ice Age, disease, population pressures from the East or the lure of bison hunting, the Oneota left the Mississippi River Valley and moved west into Iowa and southern Minnesota. It was in these areas that the French first made contact and recorded them as the Ioway Tribe.

Red Wing Locality: Archeologists found several large mound and village complexes on a series of sandy terraces along both sides of the Mississippi River near the mouth of the Cannon River. Between A.D. 1000 and 1300, Oneota horticulturists grew fields of corn, hunted elk, deer and bison and exploited the many resources of the adjacent floodplain.

Trempealeau/Parrott Park: The Trempealeau bluffs have attracted people for thousands of years. Mound building Woodland cultures in particular occupied this area. Early archeologists recorded major mound groups and associated camps. Excavations at some sites found exotic artifacts of the 2,000 year old Hopewell Culture.

La Moille Rockshelter: In the 1880's, a small cave was located in the bluff opposite the Trempealeau. Prehistoric inhabitants carved its walls with numerous glyphs of birds, buffalo, fish and other symbols. Nearby, a second shelter contained pottery, animal bones and other artifacts dating back to the Early Woodland stage, some 2,500 years ago.

La Crosse: The terraces at La Crosse became the major center of Native American activity along the Upper Mississippi River after the Oneota shifted downriver from Red Wing about A.D. 1300. Here, Oneota settlements sprawled across the landscape in agricultural communities. They also continued to rely heavily on the Mississippi River floodplain for fish, mussels, turtles, waterfowl and other resources. About A.D. 1650, the Oneota left La Crosse to settle west of the Mississippi River. There an agent of French explorer Nicholas Perrot met and recorded these people as the Ioway Tribe.

Effigy Mounds: Many mounds once dotted the bluffs and terraces at the mouth of the Wisconsin River near historic Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. Some of these were round and typical of the Hopewell Culture. Many others were animal shaped earthworks, distinctive of the regional Effigy Mound Culture, from about A.D. 400 to A.D. 1200. Visitors can see preserved examples of these mysterious symbolic representations at the Effigy Mounds National Monument in Iowa and at Wyalusing State Park in Wisconsin.

Mill Pond Site: The discovery of a series of campsites on floodplain islands near Prairie du Chien in the late 1970's prompted new interest and insight into the past use of the Upper Mississippi River. Artifacts from these sites indicate repeated occupation since at least the Archaic stage, 5,000 years ago. Archeologists identified sealed layers of discarded clamshells and associated harvest materials during excavations at several of these sites, including the Mill Pond Site. These sites represent specialized warm season encampments in the floodplain by a succession of cultures.